CHAPTER 1: The Nobel Prizes 1.1 Introduction The Nobel Prizes are generally recognized as the most prestigious prizes in the world. Five separate prizes are awarded each year to those who, according to Alfred Nobel’s will of 1895, “during the preceding year, have conferred the greatest benefit to humankind." Nobel Prizes are awarded in the fields of Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Literature, and Peace. (“Nobel Prize - Wikipedia”). In 1968, Sverige’s Riksbank (Sweden's central bank) established the Prize in Economic Sciences. As of November 2021, nine hundred and seventy-five (975) Nobels had been awarded to national citizens or organizations of various countries worldwide. But just eleven countries (the G-8 plus Austria, Sweden, and the Netherlands) account for a total of nine hundred and six (906) awards, or ninety-three percent (93%). See Table 2. To say that the Nobels are unevenly distributed would be the understatement of the century. The recipients essentially form a small, private club whose members, particularly in the sciences, are drawn almost exclusively from countries in Europe and North America. The United States is the Chief Executive Officer of the club with the United Kingdom, Germany, and France rounding out senior management. Just seven other countries are needed as rank-and-file members to reach the 93% near-total dominance shown in Table 2. 1.2 Gender Women have increased their presence among Nobel Prize recipients, but the prestigious honor is still a long way from achieving gender parity, highlighting the under-representation of women in the sciences but also in powerful positions in the humanities. Table 2: Nobel Laureates as of 2021: G-8 Countries Country Population 2021 (est.) Nobel Laureates as of 2021 Canada 37,420,000 28 France 65,200,000 71 Germany 83,600,000 111 Italy 60,600,000 21 Japan 126,000,000 27 Russia/Soviet Union 146,000,000 32 United Kingdom 67,600,000 138 United States 330,000,000 400 TOTALS: 916,180,000 828 Other Notable European Union Countries Country Population 2021 (est.) Nobel Laureates as of 2021 Austria 9,006,398 22 Netherlands 17,134,872 22 Sweden 10,160,169 32 TOTALS: 36,301,439 76 Rest of the World Population 2021 (est.) Nobel Laureates as of 2021 6,947,818,561 69 While in the one hundred years between 1902 and 1921, only around 4 percent of Nobel Prize Laureates were women, that number was 12.4 percent between 2002 and 2021. Overall, as of 2021, women have received 6.2 percent of the awards. This is encouraging. See Table 3 Table 3 Nobel Prize Awards by Gender in Each Category 1901-2021 Nobel Prize Female Male Number Number Chemistry 7 181 Economics 2 87 Literature 16 102 Peace 18 91 Physics 4 215 Physiology or Medicine 12 212 Total 59 888 Studies show that on average, from an early age, females are more interested in people-related activities than things-related activities, while for males is the opposite situation. For example, a 2000 study on 102 randomly selected neonates (58 female, 44 male), with a mean age of 36.7 hours, found that males have stronger preferences for looking at a mechanical object than a human face, while for females is the opposite. It is not known specifically where these sex differences originate, and it need not be the case that they are inherently biological. However, note that women have won 12 Nobels in Physiology/Medicine (i.e., “people-oriented” vocations) more than in Physics and Chemistry combined. Table 4 Nobel Prize Recipients by Race/Ethnicity/Religious Affiliation (Estimated) 1901-2021 Race/Ethnicity/Religious Affiliation Number White Europeans/Christians 582 Jews 199 Asians (Japanese, Chinese, East Indians, and others) 80 Latin Americans 17 Blacks 17 Arabs 10 1.3 Race/Ethnicity/Religious Affiliation Table 4 shows that the overwhelming number of Nobel Laureates are white males, Jews, and Gentiles. This aligns with the geographic dominance of Europe (mostly Western Europe actually) and North America as demonstrated in Table 2. No doubt, this is rooted in the interest and pursuit of scientific knowledge and invention in the Western World in recent centuries. Cultural norms are important also: an advantage of the US science-technology community and American society at large, has been its historic openness to criticism and discourse, as well as physical safety and liberty of expression given to creative individuals. And it is no coincidence that in the various rankings of the 100 Best Universities in the World, generally about 85 of the schools selected are located in Europe and North America. These top schools attract the top faculty and researchers (including many immigrants), the top students, and the most grant and endowment money. The Nobels follow. Male dominance will continue for the near future but just as women have made inroads at the highest echelons, so too will other countries begin to assert themselves. Consider China and Japan: China has just 5 Nobel Laureates but 4 of these were awarded since the millennium. As the country continues to develop its post-secondary institutions and its research capabilities and scientific prowess, more awards will surely be forthcoming. As for Japan, after decades of post-war recovery, the country now counts 29 Nobels, 19 of which were awarded since the year 2000. More awards will certainly follow as Japan has clearly established itself as a player on the world scene. Jews make up 0.2% of the worlds’ population, yet they have won over 20% of the Nobel prizes. Considering that Jews weren’t even admitted to university in Britain until the 1820s and were on a quota at some American Ivy League colleges until after the Second World War, their successes are truly remarkable. Blogger Israel Drazin, commenting on the book “The Super Achievers” by Ronald Gerstl concludes that “Jewish cultural values based on family upbringing, dedication to education, self-motivation, persistence, resilience in face of adversity, and plain hard work undoubtedly contribute to their success.” Other factors identified include the generally stable Jewish family life, and the absence of family strife and other social ills. Gerstl emphasizes that education has been a goal for Jews for millennia, that Jewish parents encourage their children’s love of learning. He speaks about the Jewish drive to excel and quotes the former Israeli Prime minister Shimon Peres, “There is something in our DNA that makes us Jews never feel satisfied,” and notes that Jews frequently succeed when others give up. He also asserts that Jews generally have a higher IQ than people in other cultures and that IQs are frequently inherited. ***************************************** Chapters 2, 3, and 4 provide ten (10) examples each of what are, arguably, the Greatest Scientific Achievements, Greatest Inventions, and Greatest Medical Achievements of the (mostly) modern world. They are listed in no particular order and there are certainly others not included which could have been.