We’ve all heard the saying, “Don’t judge a book by its

cover,” but that’s exactly what happens in our society.

Within seconds of meeting someone, our minds automatically

form our first impression of that person.

As a result of our tendency to judge a book by its cover,

people with NVLD are often misunderstood. Most people

have experienced the embarrassment of misreading social

cues, but for those with NVLD, this can be an ongoing and

chronic problem, and they may be misperceived as difficult,

rude, bossy, incompetent, clueless, lazy, or crazy. Changing

others’ perceptions is much harder for those with NVLD,

because their behavior does not match any visible sign of

deficits, thereby denying them the understanding they need

for a good first impression. Those misperceptions result in

missed opportunities and lost relationships.

Opening the Book

People who think, learn, and do things differently from the

majority of the population (neurotypicals, or NTs) because

of neurological differences are known as neurodivergent

(ND). Those with NVLD are therefore categorized as ND.

Since their appearance doesn’t indicate the discrepancy between

their exceptional verbal communication and their

10 Misnamed, Misdiagnosed, Misunderstood

poor nonverbal communication (body language, facial expressions,

gestures, tone of voice) and performance difficulties,

people assume they are neurotypical.

NVLD may be the most overlooked, misunderstood,

misdiagnosed and misnamed learning disability. According

to “Estimated Prevalence of Nonverbal Learning Disability

among North American Children and Adolescents,” published

in the April 2020 issue of the Journal of the American

Medical Association (JAMA), between 2.2 and 2.9 million

children under the age of eighteen in the United States and

Canada may have NVLD. Moreover, as many as 50 percent

of them have received no diagnosis. Overlapping symptoms

and co-occurring disorders may cause those with NVLD to

be misdiagnosed as having ADHD or autism level 1 (a variant

of autism, formerly known as Asperger’s syndrome) and

therefore, NVLD is underdiagnosed. Marcia Rubinstein,

an education specialist in West Hartford, Connecticut, once

said that almost every child she saw with NVLD had first

been diagnosed with ADHD.

Despite the overlapping symptoms in all of these disorders,

the causes stem from differences in brain pathology that

distinguish one disorder from another. A nonverbal learning

disability is believed to be caused by damage, disorder,

or destruction of neuronal white matter in the brain’s right

hemisphere. In an article published on March 1, 1994,

Journal of Learning Disabilities, Michael C. S. Harnadek and

Bryan P. Rourke wrote that brain scans have identified that

Don’t Judge a Book by Its Cover 11

children with NVLD have smaller splenia than those with

high-functioning autism and ADHD. The splenium is a part

of the corpus callosum that connects the left and right hemispheres

of the brain and is vital for visual-spatial functioning.

NVLD typically shows up as a right-hemisphere weakness.

Adding to the confusion is disagreement among professionals

within the psychological and educational communities.

Since NVLD is not included in the Diagnostic

and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), it isn’t

recognized as an official disorder. The DSM is the bible of

mental disorders, used by professionals as a reference for descriptions,

symptoms, and criteria to make an official diagnosis

required for insurance reimbursement and approval of

special education services. But not all children and adults

fit into the same pattern. In other words, NVLD is not a

cookie-cutter diagnosis. The saying “When you’ve met one

person with autism, you’ve met one person” also applies to

those with NVLD.

NVLD is distinguished by both visual-spatial and nonverbal

communication skills deficits, according to experts at

the National Center for Learning Disabilities. The NVLD

Project’s website states that one defining criterion for the

condition is the presence of a discrepancy between perceptual

reasoning (formerly performance IQ) and verbal comprehension

(formerly verbal IQ), as measured by intelligence

tests. The VIQ-PIQ discrepancy is the single agreed-upon

feature necessary for a diagnosis of NVLD.

12 Misnamed, Misdiagnosed, Misunderstood

Ray

Research has shown that, in this society, attractive

people are well-received and afforded more opportunities.

This was the case with Ray, one of my students

with NVLD. He was a beautiful child with perfectly

chiseled features. He was so good-looking his mother

was often told he could be a model. On first meeting

Ray, most people assumed that he was well-behaved

and neurotypical, making that assessment solely based

on his appearance. People did not expect him to behave

as he did. In fact, due to his appearance, they

expected more of him and were often confused by the

discrepancy between his appearance and his behaviors.

Because Ray is neurodivergent (ND), his literal interpretations,

hyperactivity, impulsivity, and lack of focus

caused him, at times, to unintentionally blurt out

blunt and tactless comments.

When we see someone in a wheelchair, we don’t hold

that person accountable for things they struggle with or cannot

do. Most of us understand they may need assistance and

alter our expectations accordingly. Wouldn’t it be crazy and

cruel to blame and reject a person for being unable to walk,

as if she is doing it on purpose? Yet Ray was identified as a

“spoiled brat” and his mother as a bad parent.

There is no such sign or visible evidence, like a wheelchair,

to account for NVLDers’ difficulties and socially

Don’t Judge a Book by Its Cover 13

awkward behaviors. The depression learned helplessness,

broken friendships, countless jobs, rejections, crippling

anxiety, and ongoing therapy with little to no results

would wear down anyone. They begin to doubt and blame

themselves and may question their sanity, wondering why

they are underestimated and misconstrued.

A Work in Progress

The NVLD Project, a nonprofit organization, is working

hard to bring about positive change and acceptance in

society for those with NVLD. They’ve funded researchers

from Columbia University to conduct the scientific research

needed to secure inclusion of NVLD in the DSM

(Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders).

As of this writing, a proposal has been submitted

to the DSM Steering Committee of the American Psychiatric

Association to include NVLD renamed as developmental

visual-spatial disorder (DVSD), in future

versions of the DSM diagnostic system. The consensus

diagnostic criteria set for DVSD was formulated with

input from experts in NVLD, learning disabilities, and

neurodevelopmental disorders.

I’m proud to be an ambassador for the NVLD Project,

helping to spread awareness by advocating for inclusion,

understanding, and treatment so that NVLDers

can become productive members of society and live

their best lives.

Visit the NVLD Project’s website (www.nvld.org) to

learn more about the disorder and to make a donation

to the organization. You can also donate to the NVLD

Project from my website at www.lindakaranzalis.com

Yes, We Speak!

The current name of this neurodevelopmental disorder is

a misleading term, as it implies people with NVLD don’t

speak. Parents, teachers, and therapists are often dumbfounded

when I’m talking about myself as someone who

has NVLD. “What do you mean? You can talk!” they say.

That may be one reason why some want to change NVLD

to developmental visual-spatial disorder.

NVLDers have exceptional vocabularies, expressive language,

and auditory memory. In fact, most have an impressive

range of knowledge in many different areas. It is often

virtually inconceivable to others that these individuals have

significant difficulties functioning day to day. Although having

average to superior verbal intelligence, NVLDers have

difficulties with visual-spatial processing, executive functioning

(planning and prioritizing), recognizing and processing

nonverbal social communication cues (facial expressions,

body language, tone of voice), academics, motor skills, social-

emotional learning, higher-order thinking (forming

conclusions from facts), and mathematical concepts.

Because of their significant difficulty processing nonverbal

communication, which often changes the speaker’s

Don’t Judge a Book by Its Cover 15

spoken message, they frequently make inaccurate conclusions

when communicating with others. This in turn

impacts their ability to effectively respond and express emotions,

opinions, intentions, and ideas within the context of

a conversation.

Danielle

Danielle cannot decipher others’ nonverbal communication

without asking clarifying questions. Danielle

doesn’t know it, but her coworkers call her “Ditsy Danielle”

behind her back. They think she just doesn’t listen.

People often feel she is challenging them and accuse her

of being difficult.

Her poor visual-spatial skills often cause her to invade

the personal space boundaries of others, which

makes them uncomfortable. Danielle is unable to operate

the office copying machine successfully because she

cannot decipher the pictorial troubleshooting icons to

fix paper jams and other malfunctions. To avoid embarrassment

by continually asking for help, she leaves the

machine as is and waits until someone else fixes it. Her

coworkers think she is lazy.

The 7-38-55 Percent Rule

Albert Mehrabian, Ph.D., a professor emeritus at UCLA,

published a book in 1971 called Silent Messages: Implicit Communication

of Emotions and Attitudes. In the book, he stated

that most people process and understand communication in

three ways: verbal (7 percent), nonverbal (55 percent), and

tone of voice and rate of speech (38 percent). That breakdown

became the gold standard for understanding human communication,

partly because it is an easy formula to remember.

Though his studies are quoted as expert opinion, Dr.

Mehrabian’s conclusions never made sense to me. In other

words, if it is true that 93 percent of communication is nonverbal,

you should be able to understand the meaning of a

movie or a play simply by observing the body language of

the actors without hearing the dialogue.

Dr. Mehrabian said these statistics do not mean that

body language and vocal variety is more important than

spoken words. These percentages apply only to emotions

and attitudes in the relationship between spoken words and

facial expressions and between two people when determining

whether they like or dislike one another. I see this difficulty

in my work. Many of my clients struggle to identify

how the person they are speaking to feels about them and

what they are saying. Being unable to discern this puts them

in the unfortunate position of not knowing how to respond

to others in a myriad of situations and relationships.

In my opinion, the research on how much communication

is verbal versus how much is nonverbal needs to be

redone. Dr. Mehrabian’s work was misunderstood and misapplied

and is still being incorrectly used by some professionals—

and not just those in the NVLD community. This

Don’t Judge a Book by Its Cover 17

isn’t to blame anyone, as there are so many sources that refer

to this research as the truth that the myth continues.

In 2014, Scott Rouse, a behavior analyst, and body language

expert who has trained professionals in the FBI, Secret

Service, US Military Intelligence, and the Department of

Defense presented a TEDx Talk called “How to Kill Your

Body Language Frankenstein (and Inspire the Villagers).”

Rouse believes that misinterpreted body language causes

problems with friends, family, and coworkers, and that’s why

we can’t apply the misinterpreted research of Dr. Mehrabian.

In the talk, Rouse illuminates why the standard methods

of interpreting body language can be misleading. For

example, most NTs assume that when the other person

crosses their arms across their chest, they are not open to

hearing what is being said to them when in fact, they may be

fascinated by the conversation, or they may just be cold. The

confusion doesn’t stop there for NVLDers, who may also be

unable to ascertain the other person’s motive.

Despite the overlap of shared symptoms, autism and

NVLD are not the same. NVLDers have impaired visual-

spatial processing, while those on the spectrum typically

have strengths in this area. Therefore, having the correct

diagnosis is imperative to receive appropriate intervention

services. Understandably, many with NVLD are diagnosed

as autistic to obtain educational and support services, but a

diagnosis of autism is insufficient to meet all of the needs of

those with NVLD.

Moreover, it may not apply at all: One research study,

“Epidemiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder among Adolescents:

A Study of Their Cognitive Functions,” published

in the March 22, 2022, volume of Brain Behavior, found

that a significant percentage of people with body dysmorphic

disorder have distorted perceptions of their bodies because

they have visual-spatial processing deficits. The upshot: we

need more research to distinguish NVLD from other disorders

with the goal of developing interventions specifically for

NVLDers.

John

John doesn’t have any visible physical limitations, but

he’s on the autism spectrum. He has difficulty with eye

contact and expressing his emotions and speaks in a

monotone voice. Like many people on the spectrum,

John has an area of interest that he knows inside and

out: trains. He knows the entire New York City subway

system like the back of his hand and can tell you instantly

how to get to where you’re going. He talks about

trains frequently, but his communication is one-sided

and nonreciprocal, as though he is a professor giving a

lecture that no one cares to hear.

People usually tolerate his odd behaviors and do not

hold him accountable for his lack of knowledge of social-

emotional skills because his limitations are clear. In

his work with computers, he’s a virtual genius and makes

Don’t Judge a Book by Its Cover 19

a very good living. Sometimes when John gets overwhelmed,

he calms himself by “stimming” (self-stimulating

behaviors that usually involve repetitive movements

or sounds) and flapping his arms. He has learned how to

excuse himself and go to a quiet location where he can

calm down. Unlike Danielle, John has coworkers who

understand and accept him.

Billy

Over the years, I began to keep a journal about those students

who just didn’t seem to fit the labels they were assigned.

My intuition, along with my personal experiences,

led me to believe there was more to some of these students

than was meeting the eye—as was the case with me.

Billy was a student in my special education class. He

had a learning disability that caused him difficulties in

perceiving and processing information. He lagged behind

his peers in math and had trouble socializing with

his classmates.

One day during class, Billy was playing with something

under his desk. I couldn’t see what it was, but it was

capturing the interest of the students around him and interrupting

my lesson. I asked Billy to put away whatever

it was, and told him that he could share it with the class

during free time. It wasn’t long before Billy took it out of

his desk and began to sneakily show it to the other kids.

20 Misnamed, Misdiagnosed, Misunderstood

Giving him the opportunity once again to redeem

himself, I said, “Billy, would you mind bringing me

whatever it is you have?” Billy said, “No, I don’t want to give it to you.”

Later, in private, I asked Billy why he said no when I

told him to bring it to me. He explained by saying that

I didn’t tell him to give it to me; I asked him to. I explained

to him that although I didn’t directly tell him

by the words I said, that was what I meant and that I

thought he knew that and, therefore, wasn’t following

my directions. Billy then said, as if he were the teacher

and I were the student, that I should have said that in

the first place!

Had this happened with another teacher, Billy

would have lost recess, been given after-school detention,

or have been sent to the principal’s office for giving

a fresh or smart-aleck response. I had a feeling that

Billy wasn’t looking for trouble or being intentionally

disruptive, even though that was his reputation with the

other teachers in the school. Since there had been similar

situations like this in the past with Billy, and this had

happened to me as a kid, I began to investigate further.

I discovered that Billy truly didn’t think he was disobeying

me. He was only able to understand the literal

meaning of the words. He could not understand by the

the tone of my voice, my gesture of pointing to what he

Don’t Judge a Book by Its Cover 21

was playing with, or my strong eye contact and facial

expressions that it wasn’t a choice, and I was expecting

him to bring the item to me. This is a classic example

of NVLD—being unable to understand the meaning of

verbal communication because of an inability to interpret

nonverbal communication.

Falling through the Cracks

Mallory’s daughter, Jackie, was diagnosed with NVLD in

grade school by a neuropsychologist, as some diagnosticians

do recognize NVLD, despite it not being in the DSM. Mallory,

being aware of the differences of opinions among professionals,

was careful in selecting a neuropsychologist for Jackie’s

upcoming reevaluation. In preparation, she interviewed several

professionals to find one who was in favor of confirming

Jackie’s NVLD diagnosis. Instead of receiving the expected

outcome, it was determined she did not have NVLD, and she

was diagnosed as being on the autistic spectrum.

Mallory was confused, so it was only natural for her to

question the results. The psychologist told her that when

she did make the diagnosis in the past, it was because, in her

previous workplace, she had been instructed to support and

acknowledge the diagnosis of NVLD in her evaluations. But

now, being in her private practice, she had the freedom to

make decisions on her own. She explained that, in her opinion,

NVLD doesn’t exist, as it’s not recognized in the DSM.

Unlike other learning disabilities, NVLD isn’t covered

under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act

(IDEA). So, even with a formal diagnosis, your child may

not qualify for an individualized education plan (IEP) or

504 plan from their school unless they have another diagnosis

or disability that is recognized. Mallory is in a catch-22

the situation, as she needs the NVLD diagnosis so the professionals

working with Jackie can better help her.

Despite the overlap in symptoms with autism, not all

of the same interventions would help, though some would.

However, if Mallory doesn’t accept the diagnosis of autism,

her daughter is in jeopardy of not receiving school services.

NVLD Checklists

The following lists identify the characteristics and deficits

common among children and adults with NVLD. Not everyone

will have all these difficulties, and some may even

excel in some of these areas. Keep in mind that this list isn’t

meant to be exhaustive. It is designed to help you identify

traits and patterns you have seen in your child or experienced

yourself. Check all the characteristics that apply to

you or your child.

Providing a copy of this checklist and the results of the

quizzes to a diagnostician can be helpful. A comprehensive

neuropsychological assessment by a skilled clinician experienced

in NVLD is the only way to receive a diagnosis—so

any information you can provide the clinician is important.

Don’t Judge a Book by Its Cover 23

Visual-Spatial and Motor Skills

• knowing where your body is in relation to spaces

and surroundings

• identifying where objects are in relation to each other

in the environment

• using fine motor skills, such as cutting with scissors,

tying shoes, and handwriting

• bumping into things or getting hurt easily

• visually discriminating and finding objects in front

of you

• coordinating movements and following sequenced

dance or exercise steps

• being labeled “clumsy” or always getting in the way

• invading others’ personal space by standing too close

• getting lost when driving or finding your way

around in buildings

• learning how to drive

• judging far and near distances

• catching and throwing a ball

• swimming and riding a bike

• opening doors with locks

• using hands-on equipment

• eating with utensils

• falling out of chairs and furniture

• walking a straight line

• playing sports

• writing legibly

24 Misnamed, Misdiagnosed, Misunderstood

• interpreting charts and graphs

• understanding concepts

• visualizing

• knowing left from right

• telling time on an analog clock

• discriminating between objects and shapes

• completing puzzles

• identifying differences between objects

• remembering images

Academics

• solving math problems

• counting on fingers

• counting by odd or even numbers

• counting money and making change

• confusing visual signs (e.g., add, subtract, multiply,

divide)

• copying from the board

• reading comprehension

• organization of writing

• critical or higher-order thinking

Social-Emotional Communication and Behavior

• interpreting tone of voice and identifying sarcasm

• oversharing

• recognizing when someone is leading you on

Don’t Judge a Book by Its Cover 25

• recognizing nonverbal cues (facial expressions, body

language, emotions, posture)

• needing to verbally label information in order to

understand it

• exhibiting unintentionally inappropriate behavior

• reciprocal communication

• having rigid, inflexible thinking

• understanding how you present yourself to others

• generalizing social information and concepts for a

variety of situations

• social problem-solving and repairing relationships

• looking to others for affirmation

• experiencing bullying

• understanding jokes

• interpreting figurative language, such as metaphors,

idioms, and hyperbole

• comprehending implied meanings and reading between

the lines

• getting along with others

• struggling with mental health, including depression,

anxiety, and co-occurring conditions

• asking too many questions, to the point of being repetitive

or interrupting the regular flow of conversation

• overreacting

• finding transitions and changes challenging

• expressing thoughts in blunt, tactless language

26 Misnamed, Misdiagnosed, Misunderstood

• Executive Functioning

• organizing and planning

• prioritizing

• managing time

• initiating tasks

• adjusting behavior to unexpected or novel situations

• controlling and regulating emotions

• focusing

• using working memory

NVLD Strengths

Typically, those with NVLD have the following strengths in

common:

• verbal intelligence

• verbal expression

• rote memory

• fluency in reading

• spelling

• broad range of information and knowledge

• strong vocabulary

• empathy

• public speaking

• research

Parent Screening: Could Your Child Have NVLD?

Answer “yes” or “no” to the following questions:

1. Does your child socialize better with kids who are

younger or older than his or her age?

2. Does your child become upset and say, “That’s not what

you said,” and insist you said something else?

3. Does your child believe what others say as the truth?

Is your child gullible, easily led, naive, or incapable of

dishonesty?

4. Do you find yourself saying to your child, “I know that’s

what I said, but this is what I meant”?

5. Does your child interpret words at “face value” (i.e., literally)?

Is your child unable to read between the lines?

6. Does your child have exceptional verbal skills but not

always understand the meanings of words?

7. Does your child read fluently but struggle to comprehend

and answer questions about what he or she read?

8. Does your child come off as rude, self-centered, inflexible,

or bossy to others?

9. Are your child’s social-emotional skills or maturity level

below his or her age level?

10. Do you or others become frustrated by your child’s

seemingly endless barrage of questions?

11. Does your child have trouble making or keeping friends?

12. Does your child experience bullying, or is he or she excluded

by peers?

13. Does your child tend to learn about activities and birthday

parties after the fact, not having been invited?

14. Does your child struggle with knowing when someone

is joking or being sarcastic?

15. Does your child have trouble using scissors, zippers, and

buttons or with writing, tying shoes, or participating in

sports?

16. Does your child become upset with new environments,

teasing, or changes in schedule?

17. Is your child blunt, honest to a fault, or unaware of

hurting someone’s feelings? Does your child know what

is inappropriate to say to others?

18. Does your child have “all or nothing thinking” or see

things as only black or white?

19. Does your child have trouble understanding any of

the following: slang, abstract concepts, idioms, tone of

voice, body language, or facial expressions?

20. Does your child struggle to manage social situations?

21. Does your child struggle with balance, coordination,

bumping into and dropping things, dancing, learning

how to swim or ride a bike, or participating in sports?

22. Does your child have trouble reading body language,

facial expressions, gestures, or tone of voice?

23. Does your child isolate themselves from others?

24. Does your child read or do other activities when with

others to avoid social interactions?

25. Does your child struggle with math?

26. Does your child have trouble writing on the lines?

27. Does your child have difficulty with thinking and comprehending

beyond factual information?

If you answered yes to seven or more of these questions, you may

want your child to be evaluated for NVLD.

30 Misnamed, Misdiagnosed, Misunderstood

NVLD Screening for Adolescents and Adults:

Could You Have NVLD?

Answer each question without overthinking it. Circle the answer

that best applies.

1. Do you get the details but have trouble putting them

together to understand the big picture?

• very often

• often

• sometimes

• rarely

• never

2. Do you get lost easily or rely on GPS even to go to a

place you have been before?

• very often

• often

• sometimes

• rarely

• never

3. Do you have difficulties reading maps or interpreting

diagrams, graphs, or charts?

• very often

• often

• sometimes

• rarely

• never

Don’t Judge a Book by Its Cover 31

4. Do you have difficulty with math skills and concepts?

• very often

• often

• sometimes

• rarely

• never

5. Do you overshare personal information?

• very often

• often

• sometimes

• rarely

• never

6. Do you give too many details or explain too much when

talking to someone?

• very often

• often

• sometimes

• rarely

• never

7. Do you need to ask a lot of questions to understand

what people are saying?

• very often

• often

• sometimes

• rarely

• never

8. Do others become annoyed with you for asking too

many questions?

• very often

• often

• sometimes

• rarely

• never

9. Do others tell you that you don’t listen or to stop interrupting

them?

• very often

• often

• sometimes

• rarely

• never

10. Do you bump into people or objects, drop things, or get

hurt easily?

• very often

• often

• sometimes

• rarely

• never

11. Do you feel you are easily led or gullible?

• very often

• often

• sometimes

• rarely

• never

Don’t Judge a Book by Its Cover 33

12. Do you get upset when others tease you?

• very often

• often

• sometimes

• rarely

• never

13. Do you have difficulty learning how to play cards or

board games?

• very often

• often

• sometimes

• rarely

• never

14. Do you have difficulty with any of the following: using

scissors, fixing or operating equipment/household items,

buttoning, zipping, or breaking things unintentionally?

• very often

• often

• sometimes

• rarely

• never

34 Misnamed, Misdiagnosed, Misunderstood

15. Do you struggle or did it take you longer than others to

learn how to swim, ride a bike, participate in sports, or

walk in a straight line?

• very often

• often

• sometimes

• rarely

• never

16. Do you nod your head to convey you are understanding

what others are saying when, in fact, you don’t

understand?

• very often

• often

• sometimes

• rarely

• never

17. Do others say you take things too literally or think differently?

• very often

• often

• sometimes

• rarely

• never

Don’t Judge a Book by Its Cover 35

18. Do you find it difficult to organize your thoughts when

writing?

• very often

• often

• sometimes

• rarely

• never

19. Do you read fluently but struggle to answer questions

about or comprehend what you have you read?

• very often

• often

• sometimes

• rarely

• never

20. Do you pretend to understand jokes and laugh, even

when you don’t get them?

• very often

• often

• sometimes

• rarely

• never

36 Misnamed, Misdiagnosed, Misunderstood

21. Do you struggle with handwriting?

• very often

• often

• sometimes

• rarely

• never

22. Do you have trouble making friends or have trouble

keeping them?

• very often

• often

• sometimes

• rarely

• never

23. Do you feel you are excluded from social activities?

• very often

• often

• sometimes

• rarely

• never

24. Do you have social anxiety or depression?

• very often

• often

• sometimes

• rarely

• never

Don’t Judge a Book by Its Cover 37

25. Do you have difficulty with thinking and comprehending

beyond factual information?

• very often

• often

• sometimes

• rarely

• never

26. Do you seek approval and direction from others?

• very often

• often

• sometimes

• rarely

• never

27. Do you have trouble recognizing and understanding

nonverbal communication cues (facial expressions,

body language, emotions, posture)?

• very often

• often

• sometimes

• rarely

• never

If you answered “very often” nine or more times, you may want

to be evaluated for NVLD.

39